Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr ; Hopkins LL Jr. Distribution in the rat of physiological amounts of injected 51 Cr III with time. Am J Physiol ; Influence of exercise training on tissue chromium concentrations in the rat.
Am J Clin Nutr ; In vivo distribution of chromium from chromium picolinate in rats and implications for the safety of the dietary supplement. Chem Res Toxicol ; Stoeker BJ. Modern nutrition in health and disease. Galser E, Halpern G. Uber die aktivierung des insulins durch hefeprebasft. Biochem Z ; Schwartz K, Mertz W. A glucose tolerance factor and its differentiation from factor 3. Arch Biochem Biophys ; Chromium III and the glucose tolerance factor. Role of chromium in human metabolism, with special reference to type 2 diabetes.
JAPI ; Chromium picolinate increases membrane fluidity and rate of insulin internalization. J Inorg Biochem ; Vincent JB. Relationship between glucose tolerance factor and low-molecular weight chromium-binding substance. J Nutr ; Mechanisms of chromium action: low-molecular-weight chromium-binding substance. J Am Coll Nutr ; Isolation and characterization of a biologically active chromium oligopeptide from bovine liver. Evidence that chromium is an essential factor for biological activity of low-molecular-weight chromium-binding substance.
Biochem Biophys Res Commun ; Metabolic effects of insulin and glucagon. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven, ; The binding of trivalent chromium to low-molecular-weight chromium-binding substance LMWCr and the transfer of chromium from transferrin and chromium picolinate to LMWCr.
J Biol Inorg Chem ;5: Chromium and exercise training: effect on obese women. Med Sci Sports Exerc ; Acute and chronic resistive exercise increase urinary chromium excretion in men as measured with an enriched chromium stable isotope. Anderson RA.
Effects of chromium on body composition and weight loss. Nutr Rev ; Exercise, glucose transport and insulin sensitivity. Annu Rev Med ; Activation of glucose transport in muscle by exercise. Diabetes Metab Rev ; Differential effects of insulin and exercise on Rab4 distribution in rat skeletal muscle. Endocrinology ; Effects of chromium picolinate on body composition. J Sports Med Phys Fitness ; Effects of chromium and resistive training on muscle strength and body composition.
Gomes MR, Tirapegui J. Nutr Pauta ; Chromium picolinate supplementation and resistive training by older men: effects on iron-status and hematologic indexes. Brock JH. In: Harrison PM, editor. Vol 2. London: MacMillan, ; Reduced chromium retention in patients with hemochromatosis, a possible basis of hemochromatotic diabetes. Metabolism ; Glucose and insulin responses to dietary chromium supplements: a meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr ; Efficacy of chromium supplementation in athletes: emphasis on anabolism.
Int J Sport Nutr ; Chromium supplementation and resistance training: effects on body composition, strength, and trace element status of men. Correspondence to: Prof. Julio Tirapegui. Macrocytic anemia is characterized by larger and fewer red blood cells. It is caused by red blood cells being unable to produce DNA and RNA fast enough—cells grow but do not divide, making them large in size. Folate is especially essential for the growth and specialization of cells of the central nervous system.
Children whose mothers were folate-deficient during pregnancy have a higher risk of neural-tube birth defects. Folate deficiency is causally linked to the development of spina bifida, a neural-tube defect that occurs when the spine does not completely enclose the spinal cord.
Spina bifida can lead to many physical and mental disabilities Figure 6. Observational studies show that the prevalence of neural-tube defects was decreased after the fortification of enriched cereal grain products with folate in in the United States and in Canada compared to before grain products were fortified with folate Figure Additionally, results of clinical trials have demonstrated that neural-tube defects are significantly decreased in the offspring of mothers who began taking folate supplements one month prior to becoming pregnant and throughout the pregnancy.
Some were concerned that higher folate intakes may cause colon cancer, however scientific studies refute this hypothesis. Cobalamin contains cobalt, making it the only vitamin that contains a metal ion. Cobalamin is an essential part of coenzymes.
It is necessary for fat and protein catabolism, for folate coenzyme function, and for hemoglobin synthesis. An enzyme requiring cobalamin is needed by a folate-dependent enzyme to synthesize DNA.
Thus, a deficiency in cobalamin has similar consequences to health as folate deficiency. In children and adults cobalamin deficiency causes macrocytic anemia, and in babies born to cobalamin-deficient mothers, there is an increased risk of neural-tube defects. In order for the human body to absorb cobalamin, the stomach, pancreas, and small intestine must be functioning properly.
Cells in the stomach secrete a protein called intrinsic factor that is necessary for cobalamin absorption, which occurs in the small intestine. Impairment of secretion of this protein either caused by an autoimmune disease or by chronic inflammation of the stomach such as that occurring in some people with H. Vitamin B 12 malabsorption is most common in the elderly, who may have impaired functioning of digestive organs, a normal consequence of aging.
Pernicious anemia is treated with large oral doses of vitamin B 12 or by putting the vitamin under the tongue, where it is absorbed into the blood stream without passing through the intestine. In patients that do not respond to oral or sublingual treatment, vitamin B 12 is given by injection. Although some marketers claim taking a vitamin that contains one-thousand times the daily value of certain B vitamins boosts energy and performance, this is a myth that is not backed by science.
As discussed, B vitamins are needed to support energy metabolism and growth, but taking in more than required does not supply you with more energy. A great analogy of this phenomenon is the gas in your car. Does it drive faster with a half-tank of gas or a full one? It does not matter; the car drives just as fast as long as it has gas. Similarly, depletion of B vitamins will cause problems in energy metabolism, but having more than is required to run metabolism does not speed it up.
Buyers of B-vitamin supplements beware; B vitamins are not stored in the body and all excess will be flushed down the toilet along with the extra money spent. B vitamins are naturally present in numerous foods, and many other foods are enriched with them. In the United States, B-vitamin deficiencies are rare; however, in the nineteenth century, some vitamin-B deficiencies plagued many people in North America.
Niacin deficiency, also known as pellagra, was prominent in poorer Americans whose main dietary staple was refined cornmeal Video 6. Its symptoms were severe and included diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia, and even death.
Review this video on how Dr. Joseph Goldberger discovered that pellagra was a diet-related illness. B vitamins are water-soluble and are not stored in significant amounts in the body. Therefore, they must be continuously obtained from the diet.
Fortunately, B vitamins are generally well-absorbed in the gut. It should be noted that B vitamins are lost from foods during storage, processing, and cooking. To maximize B vitamin uptake, fruits and vegetables should not be stored for long periods of time, should be eaten more as whole foods, and vegetables should be steamed rather than boiled.
Also, alcohol disrupts intestinal absorption of B vitamins. The US Department of Agriculture has reports of the nutrient contents in foods, including all B vitamins, available at their website. Source: Institute of Medicine. June 12, The USDA has an interactive database of nutrient contents in food. To view reports of single nutrients simply click on the one you are interested in and view the report. To assist you in getting all the vitamin B 12 and folate you need to support metabolism and blood cell synthesis look over Table 6.
There is emerging evidence that vitamin K may play a role in energy metabolism, but currently, the exact functions of vitamin K-dependent enzymes in energy metabolism remain elusive. Vitamin K is required for optimal bone metabolism. Vitamin K is also critical for blood function.
A deficiency in vitamin K causes bleeding disorders. It is relatively rare, but people who have liver or pancreatic disease, celiac disease, or malabsorption conditions are at higher risk for vitamin K deficiency.
Signs and symptoms include nosebleeds, easy bruising, broken blood vessels, bleeding gums, and heavy menstrual bleeding in women. The function of the anticoagulant drug warfarin is impaired by excess vitamin K intake from supplements. Calcium additionally plays a role in activation of blood-clotting proteins as discussed in the previous chapter.
Vitamin K is present in many foods and most highly concentrated in green leafy vegetables. See Table All of this is to say: there are a lot of studies in this post on diabetes and people with diabetes. Patients with diabetes have lower blood levels of chromium than healthy controls. This study found that supplementation with a chromium-enriched yeast improved some measures of blood sugar control in people with Type 2 Diabetes.
Another study looked at chromium for steroid-induced diabetes. Steroids can cause diabetes in some patients, basically because they ramp stress hormone production way up stress: really, really, no-kidding really bad for you. But this study found that steroid-induced diabetes could be treated with supplemental chromium.
For the non-diabetics in the audience, this study in people without diabetes found that chromium-deficient diets made blood sugar control worse, which the researchers could reverse by adding chromium supplements. Foods to eat: The chromium content of foods varies depending on the soil that they were grown in. But even considering the inevitable variation, broccoli is probably a good bet.
So are potatoes, garlic, beef, and turkey. Eat chromium-rich foods with Vitamin C for better absorption. Zinc is another important mineral for blood sugar control. Patients with diabetes have lower levels of zinc in their blood , and zinc supplementation helps to improve their HbA1c a measure of long-term blood sugar control. This study and this one also found that zinc levels were significantly lower in patients with Type 2 Diabetes. This study also found that zinc improved blood sugar control in obese children without diabetes.
Foods to eat: Oysters are by far the best source. Beef is also pretty good.
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